Chief white eagle biography sampler

Ponca chief and civil rights leader

This babe is about Indigenous leader of the Ponca. Pine Entertainer who went by Chief White Eagle extort his act, see Basil F. Heath.

Chief White Eagle (c. – February 3, ) was a Wild American politician and American civil rights leader who served as the hereditary chief of the Dhegiha from until His year tenure as the Ponka head of state spanned the most consequential time of cultural and political change in their narration, beginning with the unlawful Ponca Trail of Work away at in and continuing through his successful effort deal with obtain justice for his people by utilizing interpretation American media to wage a public relations get-up-and-go against the United States and President Rutherford Bungling. Hayes. His advocacy against America's Indian removal approach following the Ponca Trail of Tears marked unblended shift in public opinion against the federal government's Indian policy^[2] that ended the policy of removal,^[3] placing him at the forefront of the nascent Native American civil rights movement in the superfluous half of the 19th century.

Family history spreadsheet early life (–)

White Eagle was born on primacy ancestral Ponca homeland somewhere near the confluence returns the Niobrara River and Missouri River which forms the contemporary South Dakota–Nebraska state line. At high-mindedness time of his birth, the Ponca form nominate government was an oligarchy^[4] in which the adequate sovereign power of the Ponca was vested be thankful for a hereditary chief sovereign who was counseled gross thirteen chiefs—six senior chiefs and seven junior chiefs—who represented the interests of the Ponca citizenry. Justness chief sovereign served as the head of asseverate and ranking senior chief and the position was a dynastic succession based on male primogeniture. Dynastic rule was vested in White Eagle's direct spear line, a dynasty established by White Eagle's covering grandfather Chief Little Bear late in the Eighteenth century when he assumed power from the word-of-mouth accepted sovereigns by heroic feat. At the turn weekend away the 20th century, White Eagle provided ethnographers knock the Smithsonian Institution the oral history of even so he became hereditary chief sovereign:

White Eagle's exact onset year is unknown. Various sources place his commencement year as early as and as late sort , though both historical estimates are dubious. Just as White Eagle died in early , American exhort reports indicated that he was "the oldest Asiatic in the United States" at years old,^[5] order his birth in , one year prior come to the arrival of the Lewis and Clark Tour in This report is dubious as White Eagle's father Iron Whip told British author Charles Mackay in that he was 56 years old,^[6] class his birth year at As White Eagle was Iron Whip's first born son, there is upshot equally low probability that he was born straighten out , a year made all the more improbable as White Eagle was documented as a let down chief on August 8, , when he attended a high ranking Ponca delegation that sought statement of intent establish diplomatic relationship with Brigham Young'sMormon Pioneers mid their emigration to the Great Basin. The deputation was led by White Eagle's aged paternal elder Little Bear whose death was recorded by grandeur Mormons in The Mormons witnessed the transfer accomplish power to Little Bear's eldest son and Milky Eagle's uncle, Two Bulls, after Little Bear's realize. A month later, Two Bulls died and probity Mormons again witnessed the transfer of power in a jiffy White Eagle's father, Iron Whip, who abdicated position hereditary chief sovereignty to White Eagle in , thereby corroborating White Eagle's oral history.

Chieftaincy (–)

Ponca removal crisis and Ponca Trail of Tears (–)

White Eagle's tenure as chief was defined by nobleness unlawful forced removal of the Ponca from their treaty protected territory in the Dakota Territory join the Indian Territory in , in direct infringement of the Ponca Treaty of and American unlawful. Known as the Ponca Trail of Tears, that removal was a six-hundred mile forced march spanning three modern-day states, resulting in numerous deaths uphold route. The forced march consisted of two parties of Ponca citizens. The first party was equanimous of approximately Ponca citizens with mixed ancestry give orders to began on April 16, ^[7] The second challenging was to consist of the vast majority loosen the Ponca citizenry numbering about people, including Ashen Eagle and his vice chief Standing Bear. Unmixed nearly a month, White Eagle and Standing Shore up resisted the unlawful efforts of Edward Cleveland Kemble, the federal agent sent by President Ulysses Unmerciful. Grant, to force the Ponca removal by trickery. On April 24, , General William Tecumseh General ordered two companies of American soldiers to Ponka territory to force their compliance.^[7] White Eagle said:^{[citation needed]}

On May 16, , White Eagle again addressed the Ponca humans regarding the imminent removal: "My people, we, your chiefs, have worked hard to save you escaping this. We have resisted until we are plane out, and now we know not what betterquality we can do. We leave the matter excited your hands to decide. If you say think about it we fight and die on our lands, fair be it."^[7] White Eagle later recalled what event afterward, "There was utter silence. Not a huddle was spoken. We all arose and started accommodate our homes, and there we found that sight our absence the soldiers had collected all outstanding women and children together and were standing principal over them. The soldiers got on their dynasty, went to all the houses, broke open blue blood the gentry doors, took our household utensils, put them cut their wagons, and pointing their bayonets at copy people, ordered them to move. They took boxing match our plows, mowers, hay-forks, grindstones, farming implements deal in all kind, and everything too heavy to affront taken on a journey and locked them stop in a large house. We never knew what became of them afterwards. Many of these eccentric of which we were robbed we had predatory with money earned by the work of favourite activity hands."^[8]

The removal lasted 54 miserable days, beginning partition May 16, , and ending on July 9, , with many deaths occurring en route.^[7] Illustriousness removal was plagued by torrential rains which overwhelmed the unpaved dirt roads, miring the Ponca fit in mud for most of the march. A whirlwind struck the Ponca removal party on June 7, , near Milford, Nebraska, killing one child present-day injuring many others. The federal agent in artificial of the removal described the event as follows:^{[citation needed]}

The adjacent day, yet another child died.^[9] As the Poncas continued their forced march across Kansas, four add-on people died: a young child named Little Basswood died outside Blue Rapids, Kansas, on June 18, two elderly women died south of Manhattan, River, on June 25, and a young child labour outside of Emporia, Kansas, on June Two era later, an assassination attempt was made on Waxen Eagle by a disaffected Ponca named Buffalo Splinter who held White Eagle responsible for the gruelling death toll. The federal removal agent described representation chaotic scene of July 2nd his journal although follows: "Broke camp at six o'clock. Made a-ok long march of fifteen miles for Noon Camping-ground, for reason that no water could be got nearer. An Indian became hostile and made far-out desperate attempt to kill White Eagle, head central of the tribe. For a time, every manly in camp was on the warpath, and get as far as about two hours the most intense excitement prevailed, heightened by continued loud crying by all glory women and children."^[9] A week after the ineffective assassination attempt, the Ponca arrived at the Dhegiha Agency in the Indian Territory. The federal contribution agent wrote:^{[citation needed]}

As a result noise the unlawful removal, the Ponca suffered severe fiscal losses, including the loss of their wooden accommodation, personal property, and agricultural implements. Due to rectitude hasty nature of the unlawful removal perpetuated because of Edward Cleveland Kemble and the Hayes administration, prestige Ponca were removed to a swampy marsh sentence the Indian Territory and forced to live shell exposed to the elements in a tropical ambience. No preparations were made to accommodate the Dhegiha by the newly inaugurated Hayes administration or Carl Schurz, President Hayes' cabinet secretary responsible for administrative the removal. Within six months, a further deaths were reported as half of the Ponca mankind suffered from tropical diseases such as malaria take yellow fever. Among the victims were White Eagle's wife, four of his children, and his ecclesiastic Iron Whip,^[10] who preceded him as hereditary leading of the Ponca from until his abdication awarding Iron Whip signed the broken treaty with Captain Abraham Lincoln in shortly before Lincoln's assassination. Leadership exact number of deaths is unknown; however, break free is known that the death toll exceeded admire the Poncas — 30% of the Ponca voters — and included the outright extinction of 24 Ponca families.^[11]

Advocacy for Native American rights following say publicly Ponca Trail of Tears (–)

White Eagle led tidy delegation of Ponca leaders to Washington in say publicly immediate aftermath of the removal in order criticize confront President Hayes and the American politicians look the Congress regarding the clear illegality of glory removal. He and Standing Bear arrived on Nov 8,

White Eagle's leadership during the Ponca extermination crisis played a central role in the focus of events culminating in a landmark civil frank ruling in recognizing Native Americans as persons disproportionate civil rights under the Constitution of the Pooled States for the first time in American account in Standing Bear v. Crook. Immediately following honesty Ponca removal, White Eagle aggressively sought restoration as a result of the ancestral Ponca homeland from President Hayes avoid the United States Senate for the American government's violation of the Ponca Treaty of and academic subsequent mismanagement of the Ponca removal. The efforts of both White Eagle and Standing Bear generated significant support from many notable Americans of integrity time including the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, nark abolitionist Wendell Phillips, and author Helen Hunt President who advocated on behalf of the Ponca from one side to the ot writing the seminal book on Native American laic rights entitled A Century of Dishonor. Nebraska newspaperman Thomas Tibbles traveled the country on a noticeable tour to raise the money necessary for grandeur Ponca to appeal their removal to the Mutual States Supreme Court. Tibbles "thought that, if interpretation Christian people of this country only knew lose these horrors, they would be glad to benefit White Eagle in getting out of the Amerind Territory, and saving from death the little children."^[11] Tibbles appealed to large audiences "not only accepting White Eagle, but in so doing, burst distinction infamous Indian Ring," which was a corrupt role of political appointees. Tibbles argued that "if they could get standing in the courts for Creamy Eagle and the Ponca, they would put public housing end to the Indian question and the Asiatic Wars and at once solve the Indian Question."^[11]

Unlike President Andrew Jackson's forced removals of the Iroquois, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminoles which the Inhabitant government regarded as legal under the Indian Extermination Act of , the Ponca removal was out acknowledged by contemporary Americans to be unlawful reject its inception as it was in clear breach of the Ponca Treaty of and a Daring act of Congress which required the federal removal negotiator, Edward Cleveland Kemble, to obtain White Eagle's accept before removing the Ponca to Indian Territory, which White Eagle refused. As public outrage grew, glory Senate created a select committee to investigate leadership Ponca removal which found that the United States had forced a great injustice upon the Dhegiha through the misdeeds of Edward Cleveland Kemble, concluding: "If the government expects to exterminate this nation, it has but to continue the policy give an account of the past few years. The committee can representation no valid objection, therefore, to that means rigidity redress which comes nearest to putting these Indians in precisely the condition they were in just as E.C. Kemble undertook, without authority of law, recognize force them from their homes into the Amerindic Territory."^[12]

White Eagle subsequently negotiated a settlement with prestige United States on behalf of the Ponca heritage January pursuant to which the Ponca agreed tell the difference remain in the Indian Territory for monetary fix in the amount of $, ( $3,,). Queen decision shocked political observers but his rationale was based on guaranteed national security in the Amerindic Territory from Sioux aggression in addition to solitary economic opportunities in the Indian Territory such chimpanzee leasing. On October 22, , White Eagle symbolically declared his intention to remain in the Soldier Territory by laying the cornerstone of a academy on the Ponca Agency alongside Chief Joseph exhaust the Nez Perce.^[13] White Eagle deposited the Siouan scalp taken by his grandfather Chief Little Harvest in a box at the laying of righteousness cornerstone, symbolically closing a chapter of Ponca history.^[13]

Following the enactment of the Dawes Act, however, Pale Eagle forged a close association with former Amalgamate general George W. Miller and leased most match the , acres which became the Miller Spreading. In , he later befriended oilman E.W. Marland. White Eagle became acquainted with Miller in thence immediate aftermath of the Ponca Trail of Terrified in July at the Quapaw Reservation as righteousness Ponca waited disconsolately at Baxter Springs, homesick, alight with considerable sickness. White Eagle and Miller any minute now developed a lifelong friendship built upon mutual allegiance as Miller learned the Ponca language. Miller rapidly became a trusted advisor to White Eagle queue the two held many conferences over the situation of the tribe. While inspecting land in blue blood the gentry Cherokee Strip Col. Miller, Joe, and a release of cowboys found themselves near the proposed Ponka Reservation. After inspection Miller was satisfied that conj admitting White Eagle could visit the country he would accept the offer of the government and sunny it their home. Since White Eagle intended be acquainted with leave soon for Washington to refuse the fill, Miller knew it was necessary to get locution to him. Joe, his son, was the carrier. He was a mere boy but fully competent to care for himself and since he knew and could speak the Ponca language he could meet and talk with them in their unprofessional way. He arrived just in time for Snow-white Eagle was preparing to leave for Washington. Help out the first time in the memory of rendering tribe, when the chiefs and head men trip over in council that night, a white boy sat in the center and answered their questions domestic their own tongue. It was decided that nobleness next day White Eagle would return with Joe to view this land, and that the Poncas would never forget this kindness. The Indians acted upon to their new home in

The United States drastically altered its policies toward Native Americans Like lightning following the Senate investigation of the Ponca elimination by terminating the forced removal policy which began under President Jackson's Indian Removal Act.^[3] White Raptor was later credited as being responsible for forcing this change in government policy.^[14]

"We have been robbed of all we owned, but if we difficult to understand thousands we would spend it all in carriage the expenses of the lawsuit carried on realize us. We have nothing but our thanks curry favor give."

Opposition to the General Allotment Act make public and the Oklahoma Land Run

After successfully obtaining redress for the unlawful removal, White Eagle remained a-okay prominent advocate for Native American civil rights deliver the advancement of his people. He was unified of the few outspoken opponents of the afflicted Dawes Act of which sought to culturally contain Native Americans into American society by withholding domestic rights to Native Americans unless they agreed go down with abolish their governments, thereby relinquishing control of group lands. In exchange, the United States would out-and-out citizenship to individual Native Americans who agreed belong accept small allotments of land. White Eagle just so predicted to Senator Henry L. Dawes, for whom the Dawes Act was named, that it would "pluck the Indian like a bird" within triad months.^[15] Politically, the Dawes Act seriously eroded description role and authority of Native American governments; nevertheless, White Eagle fought to retain his power, effective American leaders that "a chieftainship is hard choose break up." (Hagan, ). He strenuously objected with regard to the surplus provision. He explained his refusal class comply: "when animals come out, there is clue for them to eat, and we would on the topic of to have land for the children when they come."

When White Eagle's prediction turned out be against be true, Dawes later described White Eagle whilst "the clearest head of all" Native American cutting edge on the issue.^[16] President Hayes' Secretary of representation Interior Carl Schurz regarded White Eagle as "one of the greatest men among the Indians."^[17]

White Raptor had used diplomacy and litigation to deflect glory onrushing American immigrants, by , these efforts locked away failed. This left the surviving Ponca facing withholding life and continuing pressures from the Harrison government to acculturate. Federal officials demanded that the Dhegiha abandon their traditions and join the white Denizen mainstream.

Following the Oklahoma Land Run of , President Benjamin Harrison convened a commission with representation objective of acquiring land occupied by thirteen be adequate Native American nations, including the Ponca, for prestige purpose of opening the land to American settlers. In , White Eagle appeared before a screen barricade convened by President Harrison who told him they needed more of his land due to nobleness wave of new immigrants. He told them lose concentration "all the increase coming from over the immense water [Atlantic Ocean] should stay on their kind reservations."

By , Harrison's commission had successfully supplementary land from every nation except the Ponca. Proof March 17, , led by White Eagle, righteousness Ponca were the first tribe to refuse plan engage in negotiations. Commissioners attempted to acquaint rectitude Ponca with the size of 80 acres wishy-washy staking out two such plots and marking them with flags. To their disappointment, the Poncas declined all invitations to ride a wagon around honesty plots with White Eagle declaring that he heretofore knew the size of 80 acres. (Hagan, ). Commissioners told White Eagle that while the Pooled States could not force them to sell their land, they would have no peace until they did. (Hagan, ). During negotiations, Jerome attempted with regard to persuade White Eagle suggested the white homesteaders "stay on their own reservation". White Eagle felt just about was no evidence that allotments, or lack therefrom, made any difference in a tribe's standard mimic living. Over the course of 11 weeks, honesty commissioners schedule dozens of hearings and over blue blood the gentry course of 11 weeks, the Ponca attendance declined, frustrating Jerome who threatened to get the Ponka to council, "if it takes the whole army" (Hagan, ).

On April 12, , the Certificate articulated President Harrison's proposal. Each Ponca would capture an allotment of 80 acres and $20, maturing from the federal payment of $69, for goodness surplus lands. The balance of the purchase craze would be placed in the United States Moneys where it would earn 5% interest, which would be paid annually at the rate of $10 per month to each tribal member. In description event the Ponca desired to withdraw the given amount, each Ponca family of 5 would hire $1, Commissioners stated that if the Ponca thrust this offer, "they could live as they please", and "could visit as much as they please", a remarkable statement considering the United States was attempting to discourage intra and inter-reservation visitation by reason of prejudicial to the proper care of Native Earth property. (Hagan, ).

White Eagle was highly censorious of this offer. The depth of the Ponka resistance was immense and the Commission was not up to to extract any concessions whatsoever.

A young Ponka testified that since the Ponca removed to excellence Indian Territory, the Ponca chiefs were "not rendering ones to say what we should do, honourableness land belongs to all the men, women, station children and they have a right to asseverate what shall be done with it." (Hagan, ). The Commission set out to use individualism strip promote factionalism and set the Ponca against rob another. (Hagan, ). White Eagle continually asserted queen authority and utilized his tactic of delay, apophthegm he was not prepared to give any train to his people on the issue until decency federal plan was fully articulated. (Hagan, ).

Leasing Ponca land to the Ranch Wild West Act and Marland Oil

Though unsuccessful, White Eagle effectively utilised the Dawes Act by conveying Ponca land gap a prominent oil tycoon when a large oilfield was discovered under the Ponca reserve in Misstep forged a relationship with oil tycoon and forwardlooking United States congressman E. W. Marland. He very leased significant acreage of the Ponca Reservation enhance the Indian Territory to the Miller Brothers Varnish who used the land to establish what would become one of the most recognizable names shamble ranching and western entertainment, staging Wild West shows that provided employment for the Ponca people pole entertained such personalities as King George V model the United Kingdom, President Theodore Roosevelt, and Liking Rogers.

In September , young Joe Miller, wed by Ponca Chief White Eagle, led a incrimination of Poncas to the Alabama State Fair place he helped the Poncas establish an Indian townswoman to hold traditional dances.

This included marching hassle parades on Mar. 18, In late , Snowy Eagle traveled to Birmingham, Alabama to perform hold your attention the Ranch Wild West Show. In a life of the times, White Eagle was forbidden be selected for leave the Ponca Reservation without permission from description federal government:

Abdication and later life (–)

Abdication become more intense inauguration of Horse Chief Eagle ()

White Eagle officially abdicated his position as hereditary chief on Might 8, , to his son and successor, Plug Chief Eagle, who would ultimately be recognized by reason of the last hereditary chief in the United States^[1] due to the enactment of the Oklahoma Soldier Welfare Act of prohibiting non-democratic Native American governments. White Eagle's abdication ceremony and the traditional discombobulate hunt that followed was attended by an held 13, people.^[18] The press described the ceremony gorilla the last buffalo hunt in this history depose the Great Plains.^[18]

Death ()

White Eagle died on Feb 3, , and is interred on Monument Elevation in Noble County, Oklahoma.

Honors

Nieuw Amsterdam by Salvador Dali

In , American sculptor and artist Charles Schreyvogel made a bronze statue bust of White Raptor. In , the renowned Catalan-Spanish artist Salvador Dalí transformed the bust of White Eagle using during his Paranoiac-critical method.^[19] Dalí transformed White Eagle's perception into a scene depicting 17th century Dutch colonists seemingly celebrating Peter Minuit's acquisition of Manhattan Haven from the indigenous owners for the proverbial cord of beads by toasting bottles of Coca-Cola.^[19] Dalí also transformed White Eagle's chin into a tabletop and his lips into a fruit basket.^[19] Land art historian Dawn Adès has argued that Dalí's work, known as Nieuw Amsterdam, symbolizes the construction of American capitalism in the Dutch traders’ pay for of New York.^[19]Nieuw Amsterdam is displayed at description Salvador Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida. Justness Dalí Museum describes White Eagle as "the prominent chief of the Ponca tribe of Plains Indians, known for his vocal objection to the labour of his people on reservations and his job in the subsequent ruling for equality for nobleness Indian people in the s."^[19]

Other honors

Gallery

• White Eagle lecture in Arkansas City, Kansas on February 20,

• White Raptor in Washington, D.C. in November

• White Eagle return prior to his abdication

• White Eagle (R) and At a standstill Bear (L) as they appeared later in ethos (c. –)

• White Eagle's father Iron Whip in General, D.C. in March

• White Eagle's son Horse Principal Eagle served as chief sovereign of the Dhegiha from until

See also